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Sesión 1 — Transcript · YTtoTranscript

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Sesión 1

TecNM · 9,938 words · 50 min read · EN

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Below is the complete, readable transcript of Sesión 1 by TecNM on YouTube. Read the full text, copy any part you need, or generate a transcript for any video with our free tool.

[music]

[music]

piho

Hello, good morning. Welcome to this first module, which is the networking module. We're going to talk about the learning objectives and some contexts regarding the topics that will be covered in this session.

This module covers seven essential topics, of which we will mainly look at three large groups. The types of networks most commonly used in home and business environments, the topologies that determine how devices are interconnected, the wireless physical media through which information travels, and network performance concepts such as bandwidth, latency, etc. And we're going to briefly look at the

TCPIP reference models. and the OSI reference model, which in any case are the ones that organize the information by layers or levels and how these carry out the process of data encapsulation and decapsulation. Let's start

a little before we make a comment. Please remember, those of you who are already online, to subscribe to the YouTube channel to follow the subsequent sessions, including the current one, for the topic of the preparatory course. Hey, it's important that you go to the MUC, and in this case, that you post your

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questions there for your doubts. Questions should preferably be specific to avoid overwhelming the system, and if questions are not answered immediately, an Infotec team of experts in the field will provide a timely solution. Now, let's begin. We're going to talk about three big groups, as I mentioned at the beginning, uh, they are topic one and topic

two, this one, which would be the part about the types of networks. And here it is worth mentioning something that, although we see it in books and documents, is very important to accurately identify the types of networks. Let's get straight to the point and talk about LANs and One networks. Not all networks are the same. Before we

can begin to see how networks work , it is necessary to categorize them. In this categorization we see specifically in the books that they put different types of networks and that's not bad. He simply has a particular way of seeing it, a kind of taxonomy; that is, man is very inclined to order things, and so he

has ordered them by size, he has ordered them by the number of computers. Okay? But in reality, although we have seen or heard that there are LAN, MAN, PAN, CAM, WAN networks and some others that may appear, there are actually only two types of networks and it is because of their technology. In this case,

LAN technology, which is for local area networks , and the eh and the One, which are for wide area networks. Local area networks are devices that interconnect within a very small geographical area. Yes, that's true. We are talking again about the structure of geography, about the size of the networks. However, it is

also due to the type of technology being used. Okay? Just as there are connectors that are specific to LAN, there are also connectors and obviously interfaces that are specific to WAN. We will not be able to have a serial connector on a computer . That's only for the networks; we won't be able to have in one, in

one, connectors that have the capacity, uh, the cables that have the capacity to be able to have all the bandwidth that is used in one. So, uh vice versa, we also have certain components that are exclusive to LAN and certain components that are exclusive to WAN. Similarly, for this purpose, it will apply both the

topologies that we will see later, as well as physical and logical topologies. Okay? So, a LAN is a network that has a connection on an infrastructure that is normally owned and managed by an organization. In other words, a company has its own network, they maintain it, they configure it, they determine certain values for

within the network. Okay? On the other hand, in a WAN we have public or private access routes , that is, some provided by the government and some owned by companies, such as internet service providers, at least here in the country, different types of providers, and they charge us a fee to be able to pass through their networks, and they

are the owners. However, there are also public networks in the country and in some other places where there is no charge for access. Okay? In this situation, what we do is identify which is a LAN and which is a W. In the case of the LAN, well, the geographical range is limited, generally between 100 m and 3 km.

That's determined by the AT 569. Uh, it has a high transmission speed. We normally work from Ethernet phase currently up to 10 GB Ethernet or 10 Gabit per second in some more modern installations. We also have low latency. What does low latency mean? Well, communication between devices is practically instantaneous. The implementation cost is very low.

Compared to larger, longer-range networks, it's obviously not the same as us having maybe some ladders, some racks, some pipes that we can maintain, versus having to travel kilometers to fix a problem in a wide area network. Internal administration is definitely something that belongs to the LAN side of things. We carry it out

through devices or also through some of our own or proprietary elements. Okay? We normally use UTP for twisted pair and wireless communication, i.e., Wi-Fi. In the case of one, an example could be a network of a university, of a company, where we have laboratories, where we have well- defined areas, such as, for example, I want to

think, maybe the finance area, the purchasing area, etc., the classrooms in the administrative areas, and the library itself in the case of a school. And all these devices share resources like printers, the same file servers, the same internet control, and it's all through that same LAN. In a wide area network, or Wade Area

Network, it is a network that is obviously designed to overcome that 3 km limitation. Devices that are much larger and have a much greater range will be used. Uh, these networks typically connect several LANs at the same time and are geographically separated. They generally use telecommunications infrastructure. We use other types of communication. Let's take an

example. In the case of a wireless network, there are also wireless networks. In the case of a WAN, just like in a LAN, only a LAN will reach a few meters, 10, 25, depending on the power of the access point, depending on the power of the radio that we use to implement the wireless. In the case

of a W, no. In the case of a W, we can reach several kilometers with a wireless one. Obviously we're talking about very powerful antennas with a very large radius, and we're talking about, uh, maybe the Ymax technology, for example, which is an established technology for wireless networks. The only detail is that these have to have line of

sight, line of site, and this means that there should be nothing in between. Hey, trees, the effects of time, or this or some other situation, can affect their transmission. That's why One networks typically use wired links, however, wireless links do exist. In this country, these services are primarily provided by companies. It is usually companies that use these

Internet Server Provider or ISP links and well, they rent them to us in a global way and we have different types of access. The geographical reach will definitely be much broader. We are talking about interconnecting cities or between cities and perhaps between continents, like the transoceanic cables that exist between Europe and America.

The transmission is variable, the transmission is measured in megabits per second, it is difficult to achieve 10 Gabit links, however, some current implementations are already anticipating it and well, obviously the links are normally in fiber optics. Uh, there is higher latency in the case of a LAN due to distances, due to the

number of hops between nodes or between getways. And well, the high cost of the infrastructure makes it impossible to set up in a school, for example, or in an industry. However, there are industries that use one-type links to be able to communicate between campuses, whether this is between a branch and a headquarters

or between branches. And then, well, it can also be used. Typical media include fiber optics, microwave links, and satellite, although less so than in the 1990s. A real-world example would be a corporate network with offices in Mexico City, Monterrey, and Guadalajara. Each office has its own local area network, and these local area networks are

interconnected through a connection contracted with an ISP or telecommunications service provider. This allows them to access the central servers or the headquarters servers. Here is a particular comparison chart about what a LAN is and what a... Uh, we can see the range of these networks and we can observe the difference between meters and

kilometers, between the typical speed, the latency that can be achieved, and obviously the traditional means that we use or that are used to connect these two types of networks.

In the case of network topologies, there are different types of topologies. We can first identify a division. There are logical topologies and physical topologies. Physical topologies are the arrangement of how one

computer is physically arranged with respect to another and how it is connected to it, whether it is connected directly or almost directly, or connected through an intermediary device or a central device. In this case, the topologies that have been used throughout history have mainly been the bus topology, the ring topology, the star topology, the mesh topology and

some hybrid topologies that include both or two or even three different types of networks. In the case of the ABUS topology, it was widely used in the early 80s, and was even still in use until the mid-90s in some companies; these high-speed bus topologies already transmitted a little more than 1 megabit per second. However, well, they

fell into disuse precisely because of the low data transmission. In the case of star topology, since it is the topology that is commonly used, it is the topology that is still used today. Um, in order to identify one from the other, well, in the case of a bus topology, we would run a cable and

connect all the devices to that cable. At the end of the cable, on both sides, we put a terminator. These connectors were of the BNC type. And well, here it could be identified that the cable failure or the unattended disconnection of one of the stations caused the network to crash completely. Uh, I was

prepared for the package to go and travel through all the stations and in the same way return through all the stations delivering the packages. Uh, it's currently an obsolete type of network and is no longer used. We can still find this type of network, maybe in some cars from the decade, well, from 2000 to 2015 more or less,

now it is already using another type of technology. In the case of this star network, well, it has different meanings of logical topologies that can be used within the same star topology. And well, if a connection fails, it only fails in that specific computer or node, the sensor or connection that is failing at that moment. Uh, the

star mole's main element is that it has a central element, usually a switch; hoops existed, however, hoops are now also obsolete. Currently, switches are used, and well, all the connections go almost centrally to that switch, and from that switch, the connections go to various elements. Um, in tomorrow's session we're going to talk

about internet working devices or network interconnection devices, and in this case we're going to talk a little about the difference between a C and a switch. Right now, the only thing that interests us is that the switch is the default device, or, if you'll excuse the pun, the star device of practically all our

networks. Okay? In the state, we could say that the current state is that it is the dominant topology. Other topologies that exist and that existed include ring topology, Mayan topology, and hybrid topology. In this case, these topologies have particular characteristics. For example, in the case of ring topology, a pair of tokens is used,

right? Two, in fact, one that is the control token and the other that is the data token. Okay, let's imagine a clock face, uh, where we send the signal to the first station and ask if he's the one who has to pick up the content, and then we give him the scoop so he can broadcast it, and

we go on like that, station by station. So, obviously these tokens are going around and trying to reach the next station. It was called a star, sorry, a ring because the intention was for it to turn as if it were a circle. However, well, in reality, in the actual part of the issue, they all

connected to a MAU or Masau, which is a multiple access unit, okay? And this meant that all connections were also somehow connected to a central device. Okay? These networks were widely used in the past. Uh, we're talking about IBM networks, it's owned by IBM, the ring topology or the token ring. And later

some variants were used as standard in ILE 800 2.5 five where we already had other standards that could be used by the rest of the participants in the market, that is, the other integrators could make use of this standard to be able to build or use this same type of topology. The Mayan topology is based on the idea that it

has a formula, as you will see there, where we can calculate the number of connections that exist. If we have two nodes, then there will be only one connection. If we have three nodes, then we have, uh, three connections. This, uh, well, possibly yes, three connections. If we have four nodes, then it

grows exponentially because it would be a connection going to practically every device. That means that if we had four nodes, we would have at least one, two, three, four, five, six, seven connections. And then this formula helps us to count the connections. It is very likely that the Mayan topology is not so complete,

but it is very complex to be able to implement. Mayan topology was primarily used as a method of defense. In the case of the implementation of the internet, the Mayan topology was used precisely to connect between military bases and some universities that had resources with the American government to be able to connect everyone with everyone.

The intention was very simple. The idea was that in the event of a war, or a bomb falling on one of the military bases, well, the others could continue functioning without needing that one to be online. Well, that's how crude it was, just as they had envisioned it. Uh, Maya's topology could then be thought of as a

topology that connects everyone to everyone. Its advantage is high fault tolerance. And if there are multiple routes, traffic is distributed among those routes. The disadvantage is that it is very expensive to implement and quite complex to manage. Well, you could say there's a trade-off between redundancy and cost. And well, as I was saying, the

main point of use of this topology was, without a doubt, in the beginnings of Arpanet, that is, the beginnings of the internet. A hybrid topology, on the other hand, combines two or more distinct topologies within the network infrastructure. Its main objective is to take advantage of every benefit of topology and apply them where appropriate. In other

words, the model uses medium-sized networks, we can use star-type networks or star topology, while in the case of much larger networks, where we might need the connection between different nodes, we could use a partial form of mesh. Okay. The idea is that depending on whether it's in a building, on a campus, or

several kilometers away, we would have to determine the best way to communicate between them. The advantage of using a hybrid network, obviously, is that it has a lot of flexibility, and it has quite a bit of redundancy. Let's remember, well, here's an important point: redundancy in a One type network is necessary; redundancy in a network is

primarily protected by a router or even by the switches themselves, because redundancy in an unmanaged network could cause the network to crash. So, we can use the best of both worlds, using a mesh network with high redundancy and being controlled on the local area network . A comparison between the different types of topologies can be

found here, where we see collisions, and who has the most collisions? Obviously, it's the bus network. Who has the fewest collisions? Well, ring-type networks and mesh-type networks. And so on, we will see each of the elements where we see, well, ending mainly in the current state of these networks. Hybrid networks are the current state and

are used quite a lot. Ring-type networks are obsolete. The star-type network is the dominant one, the one that is in operation today. And the mesh networks are mainly used in communications between ISPs, between Internet Server providers. Let's talk a little bit about the means of transmission.

In this case, the transmission media are mainly divided into two main types: wired or physical and wireless. [clears throat] Okay? In this case, well, we could talk about the history of twisted-pair cables, traditional cables like coaxial cable and others, but we're going to go directly to the UTP cable section, because remember, what

we need here is, and regardless of whether you do your own studies, your own research, or your own analysis, your own knowledge, there are older networks, but right now what interests us is the current one. So, as you can see, we have in everyday use the twisted pair cable known as UTP, incorrectly called, however, I've

heard it quite a bit, we make the note, the clarification, more called Ethernet cable, right? Remember that Ethernet is a logical topology. Yes, however, well, almost everyone knows it that way and we know it's not correct, but we also know what it's referring to, which is important, to know where it comes from and maybe

some correct or incorrect exceptions, however, it's what is used. It's a very inexpensive cable, the UTP. There are two types, UTP and STP. The difference between UTP and STP, as its name suggests, is that UTP is unshielded twisted pair and STP is shielded twisted pair , which is how it is known in

the literature. Unshielded twisted pair, which is UTP, is the most widely used and has certain characteristics. It is important to know them. For example, the maximum we can assemble, pull, or deploy, which is the traditional way people will know about cable deployment, is 100 m, 100 m without a repeater. What happens after that?

The cable itself generates attenuation, and that's when this signal loss begins. Okay? So we absolutely have to put a repeater at 100m. In fact, it shouldn't even be 100 m. The nomenclature clearly states that it should be 96 m. But those 100 m, let's say that's the space where we normally use to connect it, or

those extra 3 m, these extra 4 m, are what are used to be able to connect it to the patch panel and from there to the switch so that it works as a repeater or as a booster again, or else putting this specifically as a repeater is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. So, let's imagine from this

moment the possible scenarios where a UTP cable can be placed . A cable as we know it, no matter how much it has some coating, is susceptible to

electromagnetic interference, for example, when we put a motor in an industrial setting. The temperature itself can even have an effect because at higher temperatures, there is a greater ease of transfer of electromagnetic waves, and so, well, this generates some interference. Ideally, these cables should be run in special conduits to prevent this, and if not, then use another type

of cable. The cable is very inexpensive and very easy to install. Well, practically any installer with a single pair of pliers should be able to do all the crimping or cable assembly, and it can be replaced without any problem if any of these cables have suffered any physical damage. It has high availability between

equipment, can handle high speeds, it all depends on its category. And then, as we see in the small table, the table on the left, we observe that there are different categories. I'm not going back to the initial categories, but rather to those that are being used in the market today. Category 5e and Category 6 are the ones

that predominate in the market and already have the capacity to handle up to 1 gigabit. This speed category, or categories 6 and 7, can already handle up to 10 Gabits of speed. However, this is obviously under ideal conditions, okay? And having a cable in a well-separated conduit. So, let's not take them for granted and do

enough testing before we can use them. It is important that we use the cable correctly. The cable has eight wires, it has four pairs. Each of these pairs has a particular function. There is a positive transmitter, a negative transmitter, a positive receiver, and a negative receiver. And this is important because, unfortunately, I've seen people who

have tried to find the solution and have taken it upon themselves to put two RJ45 connectors on the same cable, and this causes problems. Okay. They think they are saving one cable, but in reality they are not, because each of the wires has a purpose and the other wires are for protection. They are precisely one of two things: either they are there

to prevent crosstalk or they are there to transmit energy. In the case of some devices that allow the energizing of equipment through the same cable. This is not used much in the industry, maybe in some particular networks, however, it must be taken into account that the cables must be assembled according to the regulations.

The other type of physical communication medium that is widely used today is fiber optics. Optical fiber comes in two very identifiable elements: single-mode and multi-mode. The single-mode eh allows us to connect at a greater distance. Yes, multimode allows us to connect at a shorter distance, but with better sensitivity. The case is that it all depends on where we are

going to use it. For example, in the specific case of fiber optics, well, first we need to talk about what fiber optics is. Optical fiber transmits data as pulses of light. I had forgotten that in the previous topic. In the case of UTP cable, what it transmits are electromagnetic pulses, that is, electrons that travel freely across

the width of the cable. Yes. Whereas in the case of optical fiber it works as a kind of tunnel where pulses of light are transmitted through this glass filament, which is usually called a component that is very thin, similar to a high-purity synthetic fiber. And well, the light travels inside this core of this filament. And

the phenomenon of internal reflection generates, in any case, a series of these rebounds until this light reaches its destination . We can infer that the transmission of light at this speed is the fastest speed that we know of, that the world knows of. And well, this allows us to have a very fast transmission.

However, there are actually losses precisely because of these rebounds or because of the curvatures of the fiber itself in the way it is assembled or how it is arranged. So, well, it's not that it doesn't work at 300,000 km, that this light works. but it works a little less and it also depends on the type of

device used to emit the light, whether it is a diode, light emitter or a laser. Uh, there are two types, single-mode fiber and multi-mode fiber. In the case of multimode fiber, there are currently two standards used, which are OM3 and OM4. In the case of the one, well, there is already the OM5. In the case of

each of these multimode fibers, it is mainly used for connections, for example, OM3 for campus connections, OM4 for even data centers, or for high-reliability campus connections . And in the case of this OM5, well, we're already talking about next-generation data centers , right? And what we know as next generation. Now, this is still in testing, [clears throat] it

's not fully released yet. I'm almost certain it's already in use in some places. Well, it has n't reached the entire industry commercially yet, it's still expensive. The speed that can be worked on in a single-mode optical fiber is, uh, supposedly the fastest, above 100 GB per second. It all depends, as I mentioned, on the

physical properties of the fiber itself, because when it curves, when it has a loss in the case of rebounds, or of the natural reflection of light, well, it ends up losing a little bit of speed. The maximum distance of this connection can be approximately 80 km, which is what is normally handled in the

industry. And its typical use is for One type connections, uh telecommunications connections between different internet service providers. Okay? And in the case of fiber optics, this multimode, well, the speed varies. Well, obviously from 1 GB to 10 GB, which would be the average distance. And it all depends on the type of fiber, for

example, a multimode or M3 fiber, will perhaps reach 300 m. An OM4 can reach 400 meters and maybe this is a multimode or M5 type fiber, well, it can go a little further. Well, obviously it all depends on the speed at which we are using it. If we want to have it at maximum speed, then

we have to reduce its size, and vice versa. If we want to have a greater distance, then we have to lower the speed. The advantage of this fiber, as shown below, is that it is virtually immune to electromagnetic interference. This results in it being very useful, mainly for the industrial environment, as long as it

is well protected. As we see in the example there, optical fiber has different types of coatings and different sets of cables. They range from fibers with just a few pairs to those with more than 40 pairs of fibers in the same cable. So we

move on to the part about wireless communications. In the case of wireless communications, unlike those in a comparison with traditional media, well, we will find that wireless communications are mainly used to transmit data by means of electromagnetic waves. The air, the environment, is used; there is a kind of excitation of electromagnetic media

in which this wave is constantly being transmitted. It logically has to have a loss. This electromagnetic communication or wireless communication is used by means of propagation, range and speed. This concept of propagation, range, and speed is a whole; it is a set that we have to identify. Normally, everything is already set up so we can say,

"Okay, we're going to use this type of wireless network, and then we know we'll reach a certain distance. Or if we want greater coverage, then we'll use a different type of wireless network." It all depends on what we want it for and where we want to implement it. As I mentioned before , there are wireless networks that

are even used for WANs, which is the Ymax network type, where we can reach several kilometers, typically 80 km. And why is 80 km the limit of a wireless network? Well, because of the curvature of the Earth, okay? That's literally it, because then we would need very tall towers to overcome this curvature of

the Earth, and well, obviously that's the connection limitation. So we can have local wireless networks or one-way wireless networks. However, the most commonly used are local area networks, which are the ones we have in our company, the ones we have in the Office, the ones we have at home. When we arrive, when we

connect in a park, in some place where there's an open wireless network, well, it's considered a local wireless network. Okay? The frequencies of this Wi-Fi concept, and we have to identify what it is. It's very easy to identify the concept of Wi-Fi; it's a very particular concept. If you look at the box of a wireless device,

you'll see that some of them say Wi-Fi and have a nomenclature: A, B, G, N, and other letters. It's a kind of yin and yang. There's a consortium, the Wi-Fi Consortium, that determines and certifies that the devices will have complete integration. Okay? However, some other manufacturers went their own way; it does n't mean they don't work, on the

contrary, they work almost the same way, but they adhere to the 802.11 standard and its variants, okay? And that means that both are the same. Wireless, except in the case of Wi-Fi, which we all use, which we all know, which we see in various places where it says Wi-Fi zone, well, we know

that it means wireless networks, but in this case, they are certified under a standard, a particular standard. Okay? Good. The advantage of a wireless network, well, obviously, is total mobility, we all know that. Because we use our cell phone or our computer without cables, going up and down an office. We can go out and connect to the next

wireless network and then we stay connected, and so on. Okay? Um, you don't need a complex installation, just a point where there is enough freedom for these electromagnetic waves, for this wireless communication, to travel. Obviously, metal in offices, for example, aluminum bars, or very thick walls with too much metallic material, can affect wireless

communication in some way. However, we normally have good coverage in a controlled environment, in a traditional environment. These networks are avoided. To avoid collisions, different channels are used. We have a bandwidth divided into channels; the electromagnetic spectrum offers various types of channels. These channels don't overlap, allowing two, three, or even four wireless networks to be in the same

location, sharing the same electromagnetic spectrum but using different channels. This connection is practically automatic; we don't need to fine-tune it. However, we can make some adjustments, especially to ensure that one wireless network does n't overlap or interfere with another while in the same area, provided we correctly configure the access point or wireless router and

separate the channels by at least two guard channels. For example, if we use channel 3 to transmit, we would leave channels 4 and 5 as guard channels and transmit on channels 6, 7, and 8, and then transmit on channel 9. This way, we could have up to three wireless networks. Different bands with different

radii, but in the same environment. Okay? As I was saying, the devices do this automatically. Almost all devices currently self-configure; however, we can configure it. This allows us to have some control over what we transmit and how far we transmit it. This is obviously because we want some networks to be more local and

others to open up their spectrum a bit more, for example, perhaps across the width of an entire floor or perhaps just a single room. Similarly, well, let's start to see what the difference is between the bands. And there's a comparison between these bands. We have the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz bands.

Currently, we see that there's the 2.4 GHz band, which transmits at speeds up to 600 Mbps , a 5 GHz band that transmits up to 3.5 GB per second, and a 6 GHz band that transmits up to 9 GB per second. Obviously, this is if the receiving devices support it. That's very important because we can

have a concept known as a strong transmitter and a weak receiver, and vice versa. We can have a state-of-the-art cell phone, and it will connect to the network that offers the most reliability. It all depends on what we want: high speed or long range, right? Or greater range. So, the device will connect to a 2.4 GHz network, or if we

prefer a 5 GHz network, then we'll have to be closer. The greater the distance we put between the receiving device and our transmitting device, the lower the speed and the less reliable the connection will be . Okay? We can see that precisely in the table. And well, to wrap up this point, there's

this comparative table of transmission media. So, we see the difference between wireless and wired networks. And in the case of wired networks, well, we're using Category 6 UTP as an example , which is the most commonly used type of cable today. And in the case of Optical fibers—well, we're including both types of optical fibers here because

both are actually used for different environments, for different scenarios, but they're still used, that is, for backbone networks or communication between internet service providers. We use single-mode optical fiber, and for connections, perhaps within the same campus, within the same industry, we use single-mode optical fiber. And the other type of communication we use is

wireless. And well, here we're showing its highest expression, which would be Wi-Fi 6. And we see here, then, this comparison, that if we observe, well, we have speeds between 1 and 10 GB per second, or up to 9 GB per second in the case of Wi-Fi. Currently, our technologies, both wired and wireless, are already very

similar, or are getting quite close. Okay, let's talk about something important to close this part, this part of the explanation of the core topics, or the most important topics, of this first part of the networking module, which is precisely the difference between these four Fundamental concepts that allow us to characterize and identify a connection:

bandwidth, latency, throughput, and heater. It's important to understand each one and how it impacts everyday applications, from the simplest connection, like email, to internet connections with everything we use online, to the particularities of video calls and their high input/ output data flow, in order to diagnose problems and determine where to focus our efforts

. It's crucial that we understand these concepts of bandwidth and latency. Okay? Let's start with bandwidth. Bandwidth is defined as the capacity of a link to transmit a volume of data in a given period of time. Logically, the greater the bandwidth, the more data we can transmit in a given time segment. Let's imagine

a mesh, where we segment the network at the bottom by time, in seconds. Okay? And in the At the top, we're going to imagine the number of bandwidth elements it allows us. The greater the bandwidth, the more elements we can have, which are multiplied by the size of the time frame. In other words, the greater the bandwidth, the

more we can transmit in the same instant. We 've all heard the concept of bandwidth, and we've heard it in terms of speed, right? Or in terms of bits per second, right? That is, we transmit, or we know that it has a bandwidth of so many kilobytes or kilobits per second, and we need to identify that

difference. Normally, when we talk about kilobytes, it's storage size. And when we talk about bits, kilobits, or megabits, we're talking about data transmission. It's important to understand that bandwidth doesn't give us the actual transmission speed we can have. Bandwidth is the possibility of having a speed, but it's not the determining factor. An easy-to-

understand or identifiable example is if the bandwidth of The connection is 100 MB per second, meaning that under ideal conditions the link can carry up to 100 million bits per second. Yes, 100 MB per second, 100 million bits per second. However, this is where the details come in. One of the main details is that there's a connection

with another device, and we ask ourselves, does that other device have the capacity to handle these 100 megabits per second? Is the transmission, the cable, the wireless medium pure enough to transmit these 100 megabits per second? Well, this is precisely what causes the decrease in bandwidth capacity relative to speed. For example, a transmission like the one

we're having right now, which is streaming, or a video call, requires at least 25 megabits per second. Yes, it's very likely that you've connected to some kind of television service, for example. I would n't want to mention brands, but well, we've all seen many things, like when we turn on the television and see one with an N,

One with a D, one with an um, yes, several elements, one with an A, um, and then we select one and say, "Ah, what good quality it has." Okay, we can even transmit at 8 megabits per second, or 4 megabits per second, but then the quality drops, okay? And that's because it's streaming. Let's remember [clears throat] the

concept of streaming. Streaming is only one- way transmission. Yes? Why? Because there's no data return. Now, the difference is in a video call, so we need much more bandwidth. That's why some video calls are limited to a certain number of participants, because in a video call we would have to be sharing input and

output data, and we would require approximately 3 to 5 MB per second, yes, in this video call. And finally, some of you, some of you, well, you use the famous online game and then you say, "But I have a loss of this bandwidth." Yes, known as latency. Okay. So, we normally need higher bandwidth, more than 5

Mbps, but with lower latency. Okay? What does that mean? It means that if we have bandwidth, or good speed, but high latency, it's not good for video games. [sighs] Okay? Let's look at an example. For instance, when we contract a connection, let's call it a traditional connection, a home-type connection, so to speak,

we might have good bandwidth, 500 Mbps, but higher latency. On the other hand, when we contract for our company, our university, our business, we use a dedicated connection, then we have guaranteed bandwidth, higher speed, greater reliability, and lower latency. Okay? And so, a dedicated connection offers us, as the vendors of these services themselves present it, a highway.

Unlike a home-type connection, we have... Sojo market, Soju Small Office and Home. We have this Sojo market, so maybe we can have the same speed, but it's like the side path. Okay. So this is the difference. In one, we can browse practically freely with very little latency. In the other, we can also browse freely,

but we know that we might encounter some traffic ahead. Okay? Good. In the case of latency, what is latency? Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination. Uh, it's measured in milliseconds. We mainly do it with the famous PIN. We use the PIN to know if the other device

is alive and responding to us. So, it gives us a latency value. Latency is the propagation or transmission of these bits through the medium we're using, whether it's wired or wireless, whatever it is, okay? And it depends on the size of the type of packets we 're sending. Shorter packets will obviously travel faster.

Larger packets will take longer or have higher latency, and this can cause problems for the receiving device. For example, let's take the processor. We have a very fast processor, but perhaps the memory isn't as fast, so we need a buffer or a container before the memory can process the data, and that's where the

processor's high speed is lost. That's why the processor, the memory, and the memory need to be working at very high speeds to distribute the data across processes. Okay? Well, the case of bandwidth speed is practically the same. Latency means we have to buffer the data before the other device can process it . That's why

sometimes we need a faster network card , or other elements that allow us to alleviate that bandwidth load. Bandwidth, because we need to avoid that latency. Let's continue with throwput and git. In the case of throwput, throwput translates to throughput. Beyond performance, the concept of throwput throughput is functional throughput, effective throughput. It's the amount of data that is

successfully transferred. When we do a ping, on Windows, for example, it tells us, "Sent four packets, received four packets, 100% success." That 's the ping of Unix-based systems; we see that it keeps sending and sending and sending, and in the end, if we ask for a summary, well, it gives a summary. If not,

then we just stop and count how many times, or what, how much latency it has. But the key here is how much effective data is transmitted in a given period. The idea is that it should always be equal to or less than the typical bandwidth, since otherwise the packets would be overloaded. The delays due to these

errors, or the losses due to these errors... This can happen in queuing systems, and a throwput will always result in the amount of data not being transmitted—well, not the same amount of data being received as is sent. In the example on the screen, we can see that an internet service provider says it transmits at 100 MB per second,

but the actual download speed is 85 MB per second. We could say, "Oh, well, you know what?" " You have to compensate me for those 15 megabits per second." But the reality is that between protocol manipulation and overloading the line, we have that loss. Okay? Do the test when you have the chance. Um,

when you have the chance, you can transmit to a... you can try a ping, or you can try an internet speed test, or some other meter, a speed test, and then it will tell us how much was supposed to be available to communicate, or how much is being received. Yes, in this case, we could

identify that the bandwidth might be... or rather, that the transmission might not be the same size as the bandwidth. This can happen due to retransmissions, errors, network congestion, because someone is transmitting, for example, next to us and is using most of the bandwidth. And well, as I was saying, we can use the concept of the speed test

to request a real throwout. In the same way, the gutter could It's important to consider that latency is the variation or latency over time, a measure taken as a whole. In an ideal network, packets should take exactly the same amount of time to reach their destination. In practice, these variations generate different transit times for each

packet, ultimately producing glitches. What does this mean? Well, normally in voice and data transmission applications, for example, VoIP or videoconferencing, there are some elements of loss. For example, in a VoIP call, packets arrive at irregular intervals; some arrive faster and others slower, and sometimes we hear as if the other person is speeding up,

or there are interruptions, for example, we don't hear the entire word completely; part of the word is cut off . This can also be understood as, for example, those silences or stutters that we might hear from the person. This is precisely because the encoding of the type of VoIP being used doesn't end up... To clear that buffer, those

small packets, and then, well, this difference is generated and it's considered as if it were latency, but no, it's actually a loss due to git. Okay. Good. So, well, with this we conclude the part about the robot. Let's talk very briefly. Um, well, here's a comparison chart, which, if you look at it, the comparison chart

tells us, for example, in case one, a player has 200 megabits but experiences lag, well, obviously the problem is latency or git, not bandwidth. In the case of a 60 Mbit per second download, on a 100 MB per second link, well, what's happening there is that there's a lower throw, there's an overload and there's

congestion, and that's why we ca n't download 100 MB per second, and in a video call, the voice drops, even though the internet works very well. Okay. Well, that's a problem of latency or high latency, or that connections are being used in multiple places. Okay. And so, well, that generates latency. Okay, [clears throat]

the next slide is the only one we're going to look at regarding the difference between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model. And in this slide, we can observe the entire combination of data. For example, we have the OSI model, which we all know, we've all heard of the OSI model. What is

the OSI model? The OSI model is an educational model; primarily, it's a model that hasn't been functional. It's a model that's there so that we can learn and understand how transmission works between the physical media and the applications that produce it. Normally, the OSI model is a given; everyone has heard of it, but knowing

more or less what happens in each of the layers is important. We observe that they are numbered from 1 to 11 or from 7 to 11, depending on how you look at it, starting from the generation... The data itself travels through all the layers of the OSI model until it's injected into the physical medium

and then transmitted. So, the application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and physical layers are the different elements of the OSI model, and each one has its own particular characteristics. For example, the end-user interface, which is when we open an instant messaging application, when we open our email, or when we open an

internet browser, that's the end-user interface. In the presentation layer, there's a compression and decryption process that gives the data a specific format. Finally, the session layer is what transmits, initiates, and ends sessions, like when we put our letter in the mailbox. As for the transport layer, it 's one of the most important. It's the

logistics layer; it determines what will travel, how it will travel, and how it will be transmitted. Segmenting that journey. At this same layer, [cough] [cough] sorry, at this same layer, addressing is used, and it's determined what addressing will be given, and it's identified which routes it might possibly pass through. At the network layer is where that

data transmission is executed, and the parameters are determined or set. Okay? It's finally at the data link layer where a MAC address is given a name. The MAC address, or rather, the data link layer, is divided into two parts: the Media Access Control (MAC) and the MAC sublayer. Yes, the MAC and the Logical Link Control (LLC).

MAC, Media Access Control, and Logical Link Control are the two elements that interact within the data link layer. And in these, we'll see that it's specified which physical medium it will travel through and with what value it will travel. And finally The physical layer, which is whatever the medium may be—whether it's electron excitation via

wireless means, light pulses via fiber optics, or electrons traveling freely along a copper cable—in any of those three, we'll have that bit injected into the medium. Right? And so what we see here overall is that we have, if you look, the same signature, but on the right side we have data, data, data, segments, packets,

frames, and bits. Okay? So, those are the five elements that make up a PDU, okay? A PDU is the position where the same data is located, but in a different location. For example, in this case we always use, what do you call the person behind the wheel? Driver or chauffeur? What do you call the person who's

passing by, looking at the map, changing the music, telling jokes? Ah, well, that's the Passenger. It's still the same piece of data. Yes, just in a different position. What do you call the person traveling in the back? Well, passenger. Okay. So, in this way, we give names to the same data, but encapsulated

differently, depending on the layer it's traveling through at that moment. Right? And at each layer, information is added for the next or previous layer, depending on the case, whether it's transport information or session information, who sent it, and which network it's going to. That would be the transport layer, and then we would talk about segments. Now, when

we talk about its comparison with TCP, TCP is a monolithic model; it's a model that wasn't established directly in academia. They created it, it worked, it developed that way, okay? And then in TCP/IP, we can identify layers, okay? But it's a monolithic model; it's a single line, right? With different protocols and everything, but it still works in a

unified way, so to speak. And then we can identify the layers The application, presentation, and distribution layers are known as the application layer. The transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer become the physical layer in the case of TCP/IP. Okay? And well, we also see here in the center of

the slide some elements of which protocols are used in each of these layers or levels.

So, with this, we conclude the explanation of the most important topics of this first module, well, of this first session of module one of networks. We're going to move on to a question session, questions that have usually already been asked by the audience, questions that have already been identified, but I ask you to please wait while I

clear my throat.

Okay, let's begin with the questions. Someone from the audience asks me, "Could you give me a real-world example of hybrid topologies?" Yes, definitely what you have, well, what we have in a company, would be a hybrid network in today's businesses. Okay, what does that mean? Let's think about it. We connect more than one device

to the same switch. That is, we use a technique where, configured correctly, we can send multiple connections from the same switch to another switch or to two other switches, thus forming a hybrid network. Okay? However, this same switch is configured to have unique connections. Let's imagine we have three switches connected, each of them in turn connected to the other

two, and on the third switch there's a specific connection to the wireless access point, okay? That one is functioning as a star topology, the other two are functioning as a mesh topology, okay? And that would be a classic example where the network administrator, due to speed requirements, among those three switches—which might be

the switches for, let's call them, finance, production, and administration—they need to have high reliability and high speed. Okay. High reliability, that's why we're talking about redundant links, and high speed because we're establishing more than one link to the... Once. And in the case of wireless, the wireless network functions as if it were a

star network, because we're only connecting one element. Perhaps two or three computers are connected to the same switch; those would be functioning in a star topology, and the other part would be functioning in a mesh topology. That's one example.

Okay, there are some questions that we 've already analyzed. We're going to talk about these final points where we discuss the concepts of bandwidth. Why is the throwput always less than the bandwidth? Well, because part of the link capacity is consumed by the protocol headers, retransmissions, congestion, or other control processes. For example,

we're going to send a packet of size 100, it has 100 bits, okay? To that 100-bit packet, we add a header. We add a header from the layer that's sending it, and this header might generate another header for the next layer. So that makes two headers. which handles this packet, and instead of sending 100, we're sending

120. Okay? So, 120 doesn't equal the 100 sent. We're not receiving a speed or bandwidth of 100; we're using a bandwidth of 120. And if our bandwidth is only 100, then we'll have to shorten the packet a bit, from 100 to 80, so that we can send that 100 packet. Okay, that would be one

example. Now, let's say, not for gaming, but for the need for a video call or some other element that requires high speed. Let's say a player has 200 megabits per second of bandwidth, but experiences lag. What parameter is causing the problem? Most likely, the problem is high latency or excessive jetter, since video games

depend more on response time than bandwidth. So, we can have a video game with a low bandwidth connection, but without lag, without jitter, okay? So that it works as well as possible . That's why some gamers sometimes hire dedicated internet connections instead of home connections. Okay? Well, I don't know. I don't work in that

field, but I've seen that some online game contestants earn a good amount of money just for playing. So, I think they can afford it and it will generate fewer jitters. Um, another question, what medium is recommended for two buildings separated, for example, by 800 meters? [clears throat] The best option is fiber optics. When

we go beyond 100 meters, we can no longer use cable, or we would have to use different elements, different repeaters, but according to the anti- 569 standard, which determines the points of presence, the main distribution cabinets, the Secondary distribution cabinets— all of this, within those parameters, determines that we can't have more than

three secondary distribution cabinets . That means we could have, perhaps, a fiber optic cable connected between the first and second, and between the second and third. And perhaps we could make some connections between them, but definitely, for a connection over 100 meters, we're already starting to think about fiber optics.

Let's move on to another question. Um, it says, "Is there a crimping rule for RJ45 connectors?" Yes, 568. Um, 568 and 569 determine, in any case, the way the cables are crimped. This is important because perhaps we don't see it as much in the CCO category, but in category 6 we do see that each color of

wire is twisted to a greater degree. So, each of these, the difference in twisting, prevents crosstalk. That is, crosstalk is the jump of one electron to another, from one wire to another, and this obviously generates interruptions in the cable. Next. So the difference in twisting minimizes that crosstalk. Okay? So, now what we see is that, uh, regarding the

punch-down rules, there are two standards, 568A and 568B. The one normally used is 568B, which if I remember correctly is white, orange, orange, white, green, blue, blue, white, blue, white, brown, and brown, which is the typical one you find everywhere , okay? And I learned it exactly like that because it's the one we use here at

the technology center to connect all the existing connections. That's the punch-down rule. Okay, let's ask one more question, and we'll move on to the closing part. Um, let's think about what scenarios would make you choose single-mode fiber optic cable instead of multimode. Single-mode fiber is used when links of several kilometers are needed,

such as in networks between cities or within the same city, large cities, or between internet service providers . In a network Multimode fiber is typically used within the same industry, on the same campus, or within the same controlled segment. The 569/569 standard, which determines the primary and secondary distribution cabinets, recommends using multimode fiber optic cable

in local area networks (LANs). Okay? And for wide area networks between cities, networks... uh... sorry, single-mode fiber optic cable. Okay. However, even with this—and this is a point I wanted to discuss— we can do many things, sometimes even look quite haphazard, like so-and-so did this and so-and-so did that. It's not in accordance

with regulations, but it works. Yes, it works. Okay. But that's what regulations are for, because networks are so forgiving that they always try to provide a connection to the user. Yes, some devices are self-managing, so if you made a mistake in the crimping, they might find a way to connect. Yes, but let's not leave the job to them. We

have to do it ourselves. Our own administrative structure, okay, to establish and study the parameters, standards, and parameters so we can apply them correctly in our... Okay. Please restore the connection. Let's see, okay, to wrap things up, in conclusion, we had the opportunity to see... three main topics: LAN and One networks with their corresponding topologies,

where we define what information and what the tolerance is for each of these local and wide area networks . And we also saw another topic, which is transmission media, where we talked about how to balance transmission through different types of communication media. Choosing the right communication medium gives us a greater chance of success for our

network. Problems aren't eliminated, but they are minimized considerably. The concepts of latency, trop, git , bandwidth... are parameters with which we can diagnose network failures and manipulate some elements. And finally, well, we talked about the elements of OSI and TSP/IP, where we studied how... Data travels from one place to another, and what are the protocols

involved? Well, before we finish, before we say thank you, we'd like to remind you that the MUC forum is for specific questions. Currently, those who are registering are experiencing some difficulties, but we ask for your patience. We will address your questions as soon as possible, and we also encourage you to pay attention

during the sessions and leave your questions until the end so they can be answered during the discussion itself. Finally, please don't disconnect after I finish speaking, as we will leave a QR code on the screen for the YouTube playlist so you don't miss any of the sessions and can review them all later. So, we'll stay

in touch. These are the biographical references used in this session, and I remind you that my name is Ignacio López Martínez. Thank you very much. thank you.